Test Anxiety: A Transactional Process Model

In the test-conscious culture of the second half of the 20th century, people’s lives are greatly influenced by test performance. Therefore, it is not surprising that anxiety during examinations (or test anxiety) has become a pervasive contemporary problem ( Hembree, 1988 ; Pekrun, 1992 ; I. G. Sarason, 1980 , 1983 ; I. G. Sarason & Sarason, 1990 ; Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1992 ; Spielberger, 1962 , 1972b, 1976 , 1980 ; Tobias, 1992 ). For some students, test anxiety is so disturbing that they must seek professional assistance to help them cope with its debilitating effects. Consequently, psychologists, counselors, and educators have become increasingly concerned with understanding the intense emotional reactions that many students experience during examinations, and these concerns have stimulated the development of effective therapeutic methods for the treatment of test anxiety ( Allen, 1971 , 1972 , 1973 ; C. H. Brown, 1938a ; C. H. Brown & Gelder, 1938 ; Hagtvet & Backer-Johnsen, 1992 ; Schwarzer et al., 1987 , 1989 ; Spielberger et al., 1976 , 1979 ; Spielberger & Weitz, 1964 ).