New Directions in Goal-Setting

Goal-setting theory is summarized regarding theeffectivenessof specific, difficultgoals; the relationship of goals to affect; the mediators of goal effects; the relation of goals to self-efficacy; the moderatorsof goal effects; and the generality of goal effects across people, tasks, coun- tries, time spans, experimental designs, goal sources (i.e., self-set, set jointly with others, or assigned), and dependent variables. Recent studies concerned with goal choice and the factors that influence it, the function of learning goals, the effect of goal framing, goals and affect (well-being), group goal setting, goals and traits, macro- level goal setting, and conscious versus subconscious goals are described. Suggestions are given for future research. KEYWORDS—goal setting; self-efficacy; commitment; sub- conscious goals