The waxings and wanings of European integration

In the history of the integration process in Europe, there have been several waxings and wanings of enthusiasm. This account focuses on the waxing phases that led up to the intergovernmental conferences at The Hague in 1969, the 1985 Single European Act, and the 1991 Maastricht Treaty.1 On each of these occasions, major decisions to go forward were taken. The question addressed here is why the process of integration restarted, rather than why a particular bargain was struck at the intergovernmental con- ference.