Planet Formation with Migration

In the core-accretion model, gas-giant planets form solid cores which then accrete gaseous envelopes. Tidal interactions with disk gas cause a core to undergo inward type-I migration in 10^4 to 10^5 years. Cores must form faster than this to survive. Giant planets clear a gap in the disk and undergo inward type-II migration in <10^6 years if observed disk accretion rates apply to the disk as a whole. Type-II migration times exceed typical disk lifetimes if viscous accretion occurs mainly in the surface layers of disks. Low turbulent viscosities near the midplane may allow planetesimals to form by coagulation of dust grains. The radius r of such planetesimals is unknown. If r<0.5 km, the core formation time is shorter than the type-I migration timescale and cores will survive. Migration is substantial in most cases, leading to a wide range of planetary orbits, consistent with the observed variety of extrasolar systems. When r is of order 100m and midplane alpha is of order 3 times 10^-5, giant planets similar to those in the Solar System can form.