Biological control in Chile.

Abstract The first introduction of a predator of olive black scale in 1903 marked the start of biocontrol in Chile. In 1915 the Ministry of Agriculture began a programme of introduction of beneficial organisms and since then approximately 200 species of beneficial insects have been introduced into the country. Many complete and permanent successes were obtained in the period 1900-1969 and examples are control of: olive black scale; scales in grapevine, citrus, berries, avocado and other fruit; mealybugs in citrus, grapevine, avocado and other fruit; and woolly apple aphid in apple. The use of microbial control agents started in the 1950s and numerous microorganisms have since been collected, identified and mass produced to control pests and diseases. Weed biocontrol began in Chile in the 1950s with successful classical biocontrol of St John's wort with a phytophagous weevil, followed in the 1970s by using a plant pathogenic fungus for control of Rubus ulmifolius (zarzamora) and in the 1980s-1990s by releasing phytophagous weevils, moths and mites for control of gorse weed. An important large project executed during the 1970s and 1980s resulted in classical biocontrol of several virus-transmitting aphid species on thousands of hectares of wheat and barley. In forestry, parasitoids have been introduced for classical biocontrol of European pine shoot moth and of the sirex wood wasp in pine, and the eucalyptus psyllid in eucalyptus on vast areas. Currently, there are many commercial and governmental research initiatives for predators, parasitoids, entomopathogenic fungi and nematodes, and with bacteria and fungi for pest and disease control.