Making the Abstract Concrete.

On August 19, 1981, President Ronald Reagan did something that had never been done before: He nominated a woman to serve on the United States Supreme Court. This first, however, was accomplished through a procedure that had been completed thousands of times before. Acting in his official capacity as president, Reagan sought the advice and consent of the Senate as directed in Article II, Section 2, of the Constitution. He did so through a single-page form letter, completed in part by hand and in part by typewriter, announcing Sandra Day O'Connor as his nominee (p. 361). While the document serves as evidence of a historic event, it is also a tangible illustration of abstract concepts that students in civics classes often struggle to learn--in this case, separation of powers, and checks and balances. The nomination letter involves all three branches of government and it suggests the branches' interrelationships. It originated in the executive branch, was sent to the legislative, and focused on the judicial. Documents such as the nomination letter not only make abstract concepts more concrete, they also simplify the complex; these types of documents prompt students to ask compelling questions that lead to greater understanding of how our system of government works. For example, when President Richard Nixon resigned from office, he did so through a single-sentence letter on White House stationery addressed to Secretary of State Henry Kissinger (p. 362). Presented with this document, students may question why the resignation was given to Kissinger. Because the answer lies with an understanding of checks and balances, separation of powers, as well as the importance of a balance of power, asking students to consider the question of if Nixon had resigned to Congress, or to the Supreme Court, or to his successor, may lead to an active discussion. Other documents can shed light on what is meant by enumerated powers versus implied powers Enumerated powers of the federal government are those that are specifically listed in the Constitution. For example, Article I, Section 8, states that Congress has the power to raise and support Armies. From this enumerated power, it can be inferred that in order to raise an army, Congress has the power to draft people into the armed services. This implied power, not specifically listed in the Constitution, can be explained to students by sharing with them examples of Selective Service Registration Cards from World War I (p. 364), and asking them to consider the relationship between the draft and the powers of Congress. Such an exercise may also help students understand how legislation passed by Congress is carried out by the executive branch. In this case, Congress passed the Selective Service Act on May 18, 1917. It required American men between ages 21 and 30 (later extended to ages 18 to 45), inclusive, to register for the draft. Although exemptions from service were granted to men who had dependent families, indispensable duties at home, or physical disabilities, and Conscientious Objector status was granted to members of pacifist religious organizations (with the requirement of alternative service), 24 million draft cards were eventually completed. Still other documents help to explain concepts such as federalism. Federalism is a political system in which power is divided between national and state governments. The transcript of a telephone conversation related to lames Meredith's admission to the University of Mississippi may enable students to consider issues concerning distribution of power in the United States. On the morning of September 30, 1963, President John F. Kennedy and Mississippi Governor Ross Robert Barnett spoke on the phone six different times. The transcript from the second phone call, in which Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy also participated, included an exchange in which the governor explained that obeying the federal court order to allow Meredith's enrollment--and thus the integration of Ole Miss, as the school was commonly called--would come into conflict with the oath that he had taken to obey the laws of his state. …