RESEARCH Region-specific patterns and drivers of macroscale forest plant invasions

Aim Stronger inferences about biological invasions may be obtained when accounting for multiple invasion measures and the spatial heterogeneity occurring across large geographic areas. We pursued this enquiry by utilizing a multimeasure, multiregional framework to investigate forest plant invasions at a subcontinental scale. Location United States of America (USA). Methods Using empirical data from a national survey of USA forests, we compiled and mapped invasion richness (number of invasive species) and invasion prevalence (percentage of plots invaded) for 2524 counties. We then modelled each of these invasion measures as functions of 22 factors reflective of propagule pressure and/or habitat invasibility for eastern and western forests separately using simultaneous autoregressive spatial error models. Results Eastern forests had higher mean invasion richness (6.1) and prevalence (48%) than western forests (3.2 and 10%, respectively). Spatial patterns of invasion richness and prevalence differed, especially in the West. Propagule pressure factors were always positively associated with both invasion measures. Factors associated with human legacy were nearly six times more strongly associated with western than eastern invasions. Unlike propagule pressure factors, habitat invasibility factors shared inconsistent associations with invasion measures. Main conclusions The weaker associations between human legacy and invasions in the heavily invaded East, compared to the less-invaded West, suggest a declining effect of propagule pressure over time with increasing invasion intensity. The importance of propagule pressure in less-invaded western forests suggests that spatial variability in propagule inputs, coupled with lags between establishment and commonness, drives the spatial differences between invasion richness and prevalence during early invasion stages. Meanwhile, declining spatial disagreement between invasion measures and the relative unimportance of propagule pressure, in heavily invaded eastern forests, suggest that speciesspecific variation in response to habitat invasibility drives spatial differences between invasion measures during later invasion stages. These insights further illustrate the importance of spatial heterogeneity in invasive plant management and policy at macroscales.