Effects of maternal stress during pregnancy on offspring before and after birth: mechanism of action from a hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenocortical axis.

Normal hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis activity is essential for animal physical health.Maternal stress during pregnancy programs HPA axis function,as well as the growth and development of offspring before and after birth.Fetal HPA axis is the most susceptible system responding to maternal stress.These impacts are achieved by alterations in glucocorticoid receptor and mineralocorticoid receptor expressions in hippocampus,hypothalamus and pituitary of the offspring.Adrenal cortex as an important component of HPA axis may also be a target of maternal programming,which awaits further investigation.