School Counselors' Preparation for and Participation in Crisis Intervention.

Due to recent focus on incidents of violence, there has been heightened awareness of need for effective crisis intervention in public schools (American Psychological Association, 1993; Canter & Carroll, 1999; Cunningham & Sandhu, 2000; Poland, 1994; Riley & McDaniel, 2000). Although there are differing opinions of what actually constitutes crisis, Caplan (1964) specified key factors that continue to define term. During crisis, individuals are in state of psychological disequilibrium (Caplan, p. 53) and are unable to escape or effectively deal with problem at hand. Similarly, Slaikeu (1990) stated that crisis creates a temporary state of upset and disorganization, characterized chiefly by an individual's inability to cope with particular situation using customary methods of problem solving (p. 15). Crisis in context of school, although similar to Caplan's (1964) and Slaikeu's (1990) definitions, has unique features because of school's social structure and sense of community within school. Johnson (2000) explained that crisis brings chaos that safety and stability of entire school (p. 18). Johnson also stated that crisis exposes children and staff to threat, loss, and traumatic stimulus and undermines their and sense of power (p. 3). Specific types of crises affecting community include suicide; death, grief, and loss; shootings; gang activity; natural disasters (earth quakes, hurricanes, floods, and tornadoes); drug abuse; sexual and physical abuse; and medical emergencies (Brock, Sandoval, & Lewis, 2001; Johnson, 2000; Pitcher & Poland, 1992). Although this list is by no means complete, these examples are incidents that threaten security and stability of community. During crisis, immediate support facilitates recovery for students and community (Johnson, 2000; Poland & McCormick, 2000). Even though there is some debate as to who is primarily responsible for assisting with crisis intervention (Brock et al., 2001; Johnson), American School Counselor Association's (ASCA, 2000) position statement provides direction in defining counselor's role. Based on this statement, the professional counselor's primary role is to provide direct counseling service during and after incident (ASCA), counselors are expected to serve students and personnel during times of crisis by providing individual and group counseling; consulting with administrators, teachers, parents, and professionals; and coordinating services within and in community (ASCA, 1999, 2000; King, Price, Telljohann, & Wahl, 2000; Riley & McDaniel, 2000; Smaby, Peterson, Bergmann, Zentner Bacig, & Swearingen, 1990). Considering recent emphasis placed on need for effective crisis intervention and profession's self-defined role, it is important to determine if counselor's preparation aligns with demands of profession (Lockhart & Keys, 1998; Perusse, Goodnough, & Noel, 2001). It is also prudent to evaluate feedback from counselors, taking into account recency of their graduation. If counselor educators are increasing their emphasis on knowledge and skills required for effective crisis intervention, practitioners' responses should reflect this trend. In addition to pre-service preparation for crisis intervention, continuing professional development activities provide another avenue for developing expertise in responding to crises (Brock et al., 2001; Goldberg & Governali, 1995; King & Smith, 2000; Riley & McDaniel, 2000). Information related to crisis intervention is available through district in-services, community and national crisis training programs, professional conferences, journal articles, books, and video training. The extent to which counselors are seeking to improve their crisis intervention skills should be reflected in their continuing professional development activities. …